While hope has been defined in various ways, broadly 3 types of hope can be identified in the literature.

Realistic hope: The hope for a reasonable outcome or a change in the positive direction while being cognizant of the present situation. (Wiles et al., 2008; Eaves et al., 2016)

Utopian Hope: It is characterized by a strong focus on collective, collaborative action that can lead to more positive future outcomes (Webb, 2013).

Transcendental Hope: This underscores hope as a general stance not tied to a specific outcome that ultimately good will come out even in the face of challenges (Eaves et al. 2016).

This has 3 components: Patient, generalized and universal hope which underscores hope as a general stance not tied to a specific outcome that ultimately good will come out even in the face of challenges (Eaves et al. 2016).

One of the popular definitions based on the Hope theory proposes that hope as an individual’s perception of their ability to achieve set goals by designing pathways and having the motivation or agency to act on them (Snyder, 2002).

The hope theory looks at hope as a trilogy consisting of goals, pathways and agency.

1. Goals: These constitute mental action sequences of how to reach targets. These vary considerably, with those high in hope having more detailed goals (Pylyshyn, 1973, Snyder 2002). Moreover, these goals might involve different degrees of certainty and attainability.
Goal types include:
Type 1: Positive Outcomes- Attaining a goal for the first time or sustaining and increasing something that has been initiated.
Type 2: Negative Outcomes- Delaying or completely stopping the appearance of an unwanted, obtrusive outcome.

2. Pathways: Mental representation of routes to achieve goals. For people with high hope, these might involve generating multiple, flexible alternatives with a sense of confidence on how the target can be met.

3. Agency: This refers to the motivation or mental energy to act on the pathways when pursuing a goal. It can take the form of positive self-talk and encourage the person to look for new pathways especially when facing barriers. (Snyder, 1994 ; Snyder et al., 1998)

The theory focuses on the cognitive aspect and postulates that emotions are a result of the appraisal of goal pursuits. This is in line with Lazarus’s (2000) stress theory which suggests that how one appraises a given situation can lead to emotions. Much the same way, if appraised as valuable and doable it can generate positive emotions which in turn works in a feedback loop to reinforce the pursuit.  Moreover, approaching the goal with a positive tone can affect the process as well (Langelle, 1989). This theory also accounts for a developmental aspect in the sense that childhood abuse, neglect, loss of parents, inadequate boundaries while growing up, or events in adult life such as a divorce, being left behind or other traumatic events like rape can lead to the erosion and loss of hope (Dalfieume, 1993; Sympson, 2000). 

This idea of hope is distinguished from other similar ideas such as optimism which is the general positive thoughts to avoid negative results in its equal emphasis on goal-direction, pathway and agency thinking (Scheier & Carver, 1985; Selgiman, 1991). It is also thought of as qualitatively different from hopelessness which is negative cognitions about the future (Beck et al., 1975) as it centers around the positive aspect that change is attainable and is comprehensive in it accounting for cognitive, affective and developmental influences. (Grewal & Porter, 2007)

This theory has led to various predictions that are yet to be empirically tested. However, research points out that hope is indeed associated with positive outcomes. A longitudinal study amongst adolescents showed that students moving to high school or school with higher hope was linked with future well-being and development. It was also associated with positive affective states (Ciarrochi et al., 2015). It is seen to predict academic success among students and on-track performance in female athletes (Curry et al., 1997; Snyder et al., 1999). Moreover, high hope is found to be connected with better physical and mental health as hopeful people engage in more precautionary health behaviors (Heller et al., 2000; Kaplan, 2000). 

There have been debates on the pitfalls of hope in the literature. ‘False hope’, that is hope that involves setting unrealistic goals, choosing bad pathways to attain it or having negative goals, is argued to lead to negative consequences. However, most evidence points to the fact that even when goals are lofty, high-hope people are likely to attain them (Emmons, 1992). In certain scenarios such as a physician giving their patient medical advice, there is an ethical debate if untrue information or medical treatments can be recommended to raise hope. Similarly, in case of negative goals such as suicide, the false hope that it is the only method to end pain and suffering can be deleterious (Snyder, 2002).

Much of the research about hope concentrates on its positive aspects.  

Several interventions have suggested how hope can be increased, although many of them have been tested on patients with illnesses such as cancer. 

Past successes: Reflecting on your previous successes can reinforce your goal pursuit.

Goal-concordant care: Receiving medical treatment in consistency with the patient’s values and commitment can raise their hope (Corn et al., 2020). 

Being in the present and Holding positive cognitions and feelings about oneself and your future: Being aware of your emotional reactions and strengthening and positively reframing your thoughts can be helpful. Believing that a positive future is possible and actively taking control of one’s life can be helpful.

Spirituality: Deriving strength from spiritual values, and communities and focusing on one’s strengths can inculcate hope. (Rustoen et al. 2011)

Social support: Having a strong network of social support can increase hope by providing improved access to resources, nurturance, guidance and emotional support. (Piazza et al. 1991)

Hope-focused activities: Writing letters to loved ones, collecting photos, poems, videos etc., maintaining a journal, audio or videotape about one’s life story through ups and downs so that others can learn about you can trigger hopeful feelings. (Duggleby et al., 2007)

Searching for larger meaning in life: Understanding one’s larger purpose can help withstand challenging circumstances and lead to more hope. (Breithart et al., 2015)

Hope visualizations, relaxation and goal mapping: Practice hopeful thoughts and behaviors in consistency with your larger goals. Outlining of how you will achieve your goal with at least 3 steps, followed by visualizations stimulating all 5 senses of you overcoming roadblocks, successfully attaining your targets,  your life purpose and  vocational calling even for brief periods of time can improve the level of hope. (Feldman & Dreher, 2011)